Disaster displacement in cities: A case of Kihoto settlement in Naivasha, Kenya

Introduction

The number of people displaced in the context of climate-related disasters has increased dramatically over the last two decades. Weather-related disaster displacement, defined as ‘situations where people are forced to leave their homes or places of habitual residence as a result of a weather-related disaster or in order to avoid the impact of an immediate and foreseeable weather-related hazard’, has affected over 283 million people worldwide between 2008 and 2020 [1]. In 2020 alone, storms, floods, landslides, wildfires, and droughts triggered 30 million internal displacements, three times as many forced movements as those caused by conflicts[2]. This issue is projected to become even more prominent in the future because of more frequent and severe extreme weather events. Climate change could force 216 million people to move internally by 2050, although this projection should be taken carefully given the complexity of disentangling climate change from the other factors that shape mobility [3].

Cities in developing countries are at the frontline of this climate change-mobility nexus. Challenges in addressing the rapid rural to urban migration, accentuated by climate change, frequently lead to the social, economic and demographic marginalisation of migrant populations, making them particularly vulnerable to climate impacts [4]. The growth in informal settlements associated with urbanisation exacerbates cities’ vulnerability to climate change by increasing pressure on resources, such as water. Additionally, it heightens displacement risk since migrants often live in slums and precarious housing which are highly exposed to climate hazards[5]. In the face of more frequent and severe climate impacts, cities need to reform and design policies and plans to avert and address disaster displacement.

Although research on mobility in the context of climate change is quickly expanding, critical research gaps remain. There is a need to better understand the drivers, triggers and impacts associated with disaster displacement to inform more effective and inclusive local responses [6]. This holds particularly true for displacements in urban areas, which have received little attention compared to rural areas so far, despite cities projected to become the main hotspots of climate-related mobility in the future [7]. As climate migration in cities is increasingly identified as a key priority both in the research and policy spheres[8], more research is needed to enhance understanding of the challenges encountered by both urban displaced people and the cities that host them in the context of climate change [9].

More research embracing an intersectional approach is required to unpack how social, economic, political, cultural, gender, age and other characteristics and factors interact with one another to shape vulnerabilities and response behaviours to disaster displacement. Exploring these in the context of short distance, internal climate-related mobility in low-income countries in Africa and Asia has been identified as a priority [10].

Objectives

This research strengthens understanding of the particularities of disaster displacement in urban settings. It is centered on a case study of the floods that hit Naivasha Town, Kenya, in 2020. The floods caused by Lake Naivasha’s rising levels, which has been mainly attributed to climate change, forced over 1,400 people out of their homes in the Kihoto settlement and Kamere Beach[11]. Many flower farms and crop fields were submerged, and fishing became impossible, stripping people of their livelihoods while they were trying to recover from the disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic [12]. The most affected area was Kihoto, an informal settlement on the outskirts of Naivasha home to mostly low-income households [13]. 6 people living there died because of distress after their properties were destroyed, and a cholera outbreak broke out due to the dire conditions, forcing more people to be displaced [14].

Local and national governments supported affected groups through the provision of food and personal effects and the resettlement of some families on higher grounds [15]. Nevertheless, assistance has remained limited, prompting Kihoto householders to petition the Kenyan Parliament to call for ‘urgent and permanent action’ and the introduction of compensation and resettlement schemes for all the people affected by the floods[16].

The situation painted above makes Kihoto a solid case to explore the factors that make people vulnerable to disaster displacement, and how displacement exacerbates existing vulnerabilities and creates new ones. By identifying those most vulnerable and the factors contributing to their vulnerability, this study would inform the design of more effective, inclusive and comprehensive local policy responses to avert and address disaster displacement in urban areas.

Drawing on the research gaps identified in the Research Agenda for Addressing Displacement and Migration in the Context of Disasters in Africa and the call of affected communities for “urgent and permanent action” to address flood-related displacement in Naivasha, the study sought to address the following questions:

• What factors make people vulnerable to disaster displacement in urban settings?
• How does disaster displacement alter the vulnerabilities of the people displaced?
• How can urban actors better prepare for and respond to disaster displacement mobility (e.g. through urban planning, land use planning, local disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation strategies).

In line with SEI’s guidance on shifting power through research[17], a field visit was carried out and an inception workshop organised to build trust and provide a timespan to co-shape research questions beneficial to everyone. The questions listed above guided these discussions, but final questions were co-designed with the communities.

This community dialogue is, therefore, a feedback session with the local community members who were a part of the inception workshop earlier in the year. It brings together key stakeholders from government ministries, County and Sub-County departments, research and academia, CSOs and CBOs, and the local community representatives who were highly instrumental to the project.

Expected outcome

• Present the interim report of the research findings to the local community and stakeholders.
• Highlight vulnerability aspects and the implications for local policymakers,
• Refine and co-produce recommendations on the research findings to improve the quality of life within Kihoto settlement and Naivasha in general.
• Provide evidence-based data to the inaugural directorate of disaster management and humanitarian assistance of Nakuru County

[1] International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2021) Displacement in a Changing Climate: Localized Humanitarian Action at the Forefront of the Climate Crisis, Geneva: IFRC

[2] Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) (2022) Global Report on Internal Displacement 2022, Geneva: IDMC

[3] Clement, V., Rigaud, K. K., de Sherbinin, A., Jones, B., Adamo, S., Schewe, J., Sadiq, N., & Shabahat, E. (2021). Groundswell Part 2: Acting on Internal Climate Migration. World Bank. https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/36248

[4] Gemenne, F., Zickgraf, C., Hut, E., & Castillo Betancourt, T. (2021). Forced displacement related to the impacts of climate change and disasters. Hugo Observatory. https://www.unhcr.org/people-forced-to-flee-book/wp-content/uploads/sites/137/2021/10/Franc%CC%A7ois-Gemenne-et-al_Forced-displacement-related-to-the-impacts-of-climate-change-and-disasters.pdf

[5] International Federation of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (2021) Displacement in a Changing Climate: Localized Humanitarian Action at the Forefront of the Climate Crisis, Geneva: IFRC

[6] IOM. (2021). Research Agenda for advancing law and policy response to displacement and migration in the context of disasters and climate change in Africa. International Organisation for Migration.

https://environmentalmigration.iom.int/sites/g/files/tmzbdl1411/files/documents/Research%20Agenda%20-

%20Africa%20-%20EN%20-%202021.pdf

[7] Gemenne, F., Zickgraf, C., Hut, E., & Castillo Betancourt, T. (2021). Forced displacement related to the impacts of climate change and disasters. Hugo Observatory. https://www.unhcr.org/people-forced-to-flee-book/wp-content/uploads/sites/137/2021/10/Franc%CC%A7ois-Gemenne-et-al_Forced-displacement-related-to-the-impacts-of-climate-change-and-disasters.pdf

[8] In 2021, the Research Agenda for Addressing Displacement and Migration in the Context of Disasters in Africa produced by major organisations and research centers on migration (including IOM, UNHCR, Platform on Disaster Displacement, and others) identified climate-related mobility in urban areas as an important research gap. At the policy level, the Mayors Migration Council (MMC) and C40 Cities have created the Global Mayors Task Force on Climate and Migration to address the climate-migration nexus.

[9] C40 & MMC. (2021). Global Mayors Action Agenda on Climate and Migration. C40, Mayor Migration Council.

https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/s/article/Global-mayors-action-agenda-on-climate-and-migration?language=en_US

[10] Cundill, G., Singh, C., Adger, W. N., Safra de Campos, R., Vincent, K., Tebboth, M., & Maharjan, A. (2021). Toward a climate mobilities research agenda: Intersectionality, immobility, and policy responses. Global Environmental Change, 69, 102315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2021.102315

[11] Government of Kenya and UNDP (2021) Rising Water Levels in Kenya’s Rift Valley Lakes, Turkwel Gorge Dam and Lake Victoria: A Scoping Report, Nairobi

[12] Government of Kenya and UNDP (2021) Rising Water Levels in Kenya’s Rift Valley Lakes, Turkwel Gorge Dam and Lake Victoria: A Scoping Report, Nairobi

[13] Wanjiku, C. R. (2015). Origin and Development of Naivasha town, 1895-2013. Egerton University.

41.89.96.81:8080/bitstream/handle/123456789/2401/Origin and Development of Naivasha town%2C 1895-

2013.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

[14] Mwiti, K. (2020, May 15). Naivasha residents face cholera outbreak due to floods. People Daily.

Naivasha residents face cholera outbreak due to floods

[15] Murage, G. (2020, August 20). Families around Lake Naivasha ordered to relocate. The Star. https://www.the-star.co.ke/news/2020-08-20-families-around-lake-naivasha-ordered-to-relocate/

[16] Parliament of Kenya. (2021). National Assembly Debates. http://www.parliament.go.ke/sites/default/files/2021-

03/Hansard%20Report%20-%20Thursday%2C%204th%20March%202021%20%28P%29.pdf

[17] See the ‘Shifting power through research’ page on SEI intranet.